People Attitude Towards Work Essay Example for Free

People Attitude Towards Work Essay Peoples attitude to work varies a lot i.e. in relation to the individuals personal experience and their overall perception of others (employers, colleagues) and how they are actually perceived by other people. As emphasized by various key theorists (e.g. Frederick Taylor, Maslow, Douglas McGregor etc.) discussed in Behaviour At Work element 11.1, we (people) make assumption about other people based on our own experience in that, it is a way of making sense of relating to others. We each set ourselves certain standards and expect other people to adhere to them, even though they may not share our views and have different standards for themselves. Motivation is both individual and complex and there is a difference between what motivates people to perform above average and what leads to below average performance. Douglas McGregor emphasized that managers make either theory X or Y assumptions about the way others behave. Theory X assumption includes; * an average human being inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if possible hence, these types of people must be coerced, controlled, directed or even threatened with punishment to get them to put in adequate effort at work. * an average person prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above any other thing. Theory Y assumptions on the other hand stresses that; * people do not inherently dislike work and that the conditions of work reflects peoples satisfaction * people will generally exercise self direction and self control in pursuit of the objective to which they are committed * people mostly learn under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility * people are not being used by organisations to their full potential * in order to obtain commitment from employees rewards should fulfill an individuals self actualization needs Choosing either Theory X or Y has an overall effect on people, be it positive or negative i.e. there will be a tendency within an organisation for people to respond to the way they are managed thus, if employees feel that they are not being trusted, this may result in them behaving in a less trustworthy way. PEOPLES ATTITUDE TOWARDS WORK (CONT.) Conclusion: Due to the fact that there is a range of reasons why people behave differently in work situations, hence, it is unrealistic to make generalized assumption about individuals attitude to work i.e. reasons for performing better or worse than average. Behaviour of each group is most likely to be unpredictable e.g. in the case of our Young business enterprise, GNVQ group A unlike group B spent a lot of time meeting despite the fact that there was conflict between individuals, thus we all had to put personal problems aside in order to achieve the same common goal which alternatively reflects on the successful trading carried out via high level of cooperation. Peoples attitude in a particular organisation can be measured by implementing techniques such as; * Preparation of questionnaires which is distributed to a certain number of selected individuals in a particular organisation. (Ref. example of questionnaire which may be used by organisations appendix 1) * Face-to-face interviews this refers to actually forming a one to one communication strategy which deals specifically with obtaining necessary information on employees general attitude towards their work and what motivates them to work harder and effectively. Face-to-face interviews are mainly used to obtain a direct response from the people affected by each policy thus, generating a more realistic subjective view of the employees involved as opposed to making an assumption. Some of the questions which can be included while carrying out an interview are as follows; (1) Can you describe any job you have held where you were faced with problems and pressures which tested your ability to cope? (2) Can you give me an example of a time when you had to conform to a policy with which you did not agree? (3) What stimulates you in your work and how does this motivate you? (4) Would you be willing to work in a position where you are expected to make decisions and how will you conduct yourself? (5) How do you feel about the way you are managed by your superior and what will contribute to you working even better? * Surveys surveys takes different forms depending on the level of workers which are being examined. It can also be seen as a combination of the methods mentioned above i.e. in generating more response so as to obtain an overall result i.e. a more factual information regarding employees, which can obviously be relied on. (Ref. Example of a personnel performance indicator which can be used in highlighting peoples attitude to work appendix 2) (Appendix 1) Questionnaire (1) Would you consider yourself satisfied with the level of responsibility your job involves? Yes[] No[] (2) What motivates you to work? Money[] Promotion[] Job security[] Other . (3) How would you describe you working condition? V. good[] Good[] Average[] Below average[] (4) Do you like working as a group[] ; individually[] ; or both [] (5) Would you like to be included in decision making or quality circle? Yes[] No[] Dont know[] (6) What do you enjoy most in doing your job? .. (7) Have you had any complaint in relation to your level of participation in your job? Yes[] No[] If yes, how do you view this .. (8) How well do you deal with criticism? V. well[] Average [] Below average[] (9) Does criticism affect your overall performance? Yes[] No[] (10) Would you consider yourself Highly motivated[] Easily motivated[] Not easily motivated[] Dont know[] FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION Peoples level of motivation is affected by certain issues, which may lead to an extensive breakdown in communication within an organisation due to lack of cooperation between employees and employees or employees and employers. These factors includes; * Hierarchy of needs this inter relates to Maslows theory of human behaviour i.e. that individuals have five level of needs which they sought to satisfy. The human needs as established by Maslow states that the lowest of our needs include the basic physiological need for food, drink and shelter, once it is satisfied, individuals then needs to protect himself/herself against danger, threat and deprivation thereafter the levels of needs rise through social needs, need for self esteem and status to the need for self actualization. This affects motivation on an individual basis i.e. an individual may focus on each step before actually moving towards self actualization thus, if he/she is not completely satisfy on any of the stages the person tends to struggle a lot in working to his/her best ability this may not be the case for lots of other people. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Self actualization (the need to do the work we like) Esteem (the need to feel worthy and respected) Social needs (the need to be liked/loved and to be a member of a given group) Security (the need to feel safe and secure) Survival (the need to stay alive, to eat, to drink, sleep and reproduce) FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION (CONT.) * Job Satisfaction this affects the way in which people feel about their work in terms of achievement or recognition from others, the work involved, level of responsibility, opportunities for advancement, company policy and administration, supervisions, salary, interpersonal relations and working conditions. In the case where these are not dealt with in a constructive manner, it may give rise to a high level of dissatisfaction at work which may in turn lead to persistent lateness or absenteeism, below average performance and real or imagined illness on the part of workers i.e. due to a downfall in level of motivation. * Challenge if the work involved is not challenging enough for certain employees, it may lead to low staff morale that is, workers may not feel the need to give the job their absolute best. On the other hand, if the job is too broad compared to a relatively low number of employees, it may also have the same negative effect in motivating the workers. * Motivators such as: reward, training, promotion etc. If these motivators lacks in an organisation, workers tend to feel that their needs are not being catered for, hence, developing a negative attitude towards employers which alternatively affect the level of work which is put into the organisation i.e. workers in this situation will only work because they feel the need to work not because they want to work. However, in order to get employees fully involved, various kinds of motivators e.g. shared ownership, cash bonuses etc. should be introduced to commend hard working employees thus, serving as a source of motivation in that people actually perform better when they are willing to work so as to meet a certain target rather than employers forcing work on them because they have to. * Career Development this proves vital in maintaining or improving the level of staff motivation in that, people like to think that their hard work will pay off well as opposed to go unrecognized thus, if there is an opportunity for career development, workers tend to perform well so as to develop their individual skills and at the same time climb up the management ladder. In a situation where it is the opposite, it may lead to a wide spread low morale amongst employees. * Level of Expectancy this may have an overall effect on an individuals attitude towards work i.e. in relation to the expectancy theory developed by Victor Vroom, for example, an individual may respond in a positive way to a high level of expectancy from employers while another employee of the same calibre breakdown under pressure thus, it all boils down to an individuals desire for something in relation to the persons estimation of how likely it can be achieved. MOTIVATORS APPROPRIATE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE As established by Frederick Taylor (1947) what the workforce want from their employers beyond anything else is high wages and what employers want from their workforce most of all is low labour costs the existence or absence of these two elements forms the basis for either a good or bad management. The major factors which makes people feel satisfied with their job and motivates individuals to work effectively includes; high level of achievement, recognition, opportunities for advancement and responsibility as well as the actual content of the work which is being carried out. On the other hand, factors which affects employees adversely and which lead to high level of dissatisfaction with their individual tasks include negative company policy, low level of salary and benefits, interpersonal relations and the overall working conditions (as described earlier). The following motivators are required so as to encourage individuals to work harder thus, enhancing the workers individual performance; * Autonomy this refers to the amount of freedom and discretion an individual can exercise over a certain job, this gives the worker a higher level of responsibility providing that the person wants and can cope with the responsibility. This will boost an individuals self-reliance thus, being able to meet target more effectively. Although some people prefer jobs with low level of responsibility, this is often common when people have a highly complex and demanding life outside work. However they are not likely to be high achievers. * Praise workers generally feel the need to be praised for hard work hence, serving as a motivator in encouraging the particular worker to keep doing a specific task to his/her best ability. Praise actually has an overall effect on the quality and quantity of goods and services produced, so therefore it is vital for employers to recognize and commend a high quality work. MOTIVATORS APPROPRIATE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE (CONT.) Delegating this motivates people to work harder in that, it also involves giving workers more responsibility for the tasks they carry out. Delegating is used in a situation where by the particular job holds certain responsibilities, but additional responsibility is giving through delegation, this may help in providing more time for more important tasks, thus, helping in increasing an individuals job satisfaction. Reluctant or poor delegation can be worse than no delegation at all, hence, this is why most employers tend to delegate trustworthy employees to carry out certain tasks. Delegation also helps in meeting target, improving cooperation between staff and employer, and improving the quality and quantity of work carried out. * Shared Ownership shared ownership schemes proves to be very successful in motivating workers in that, employees handle tasks more efficiently due to the fact that they also have a stake in the company hence, people tend to work very well if there is some kind of benefit to derive from their hard work on the long run. The introduction of shared ownership enhances general individual performance i.e. people tend to be self reliance thus, meeting targets, encouraging and maintaining good relationship with co-workers and employers which in turn helps in developing and delivering good quality of work (high standard) as well as improving the quantity of work achieved. * Quality Circle the implementation of quality circle serves as a motivator because it makes employees feel more involved in all the aspects of product development. Quality circle is usually set up to tackle a particular project where quality improvement is necessary therefore, making it easy to recognize each teams ability and alternatively rewarding individual teams for the level of work they put in improving the quality and the amount of goods actually produced. EFFECTS OF MOTIVATORS ON INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE In an event whereby employees needs are catered for promptly and effectively, organisations can benefit a great deal. For instance, in order for quality circles to be successful, quality improvement programmes needs full commitment from employees. The motivators discussed earlier helps in; * enhancing employees commitment to a particular organisation thus, being more reliable in performing tasks individually as well as part of a team. * boost loyalty the level of employees loyalty will be improved if they are being treated with respect they deserve e.g. if employees are offered shared ownership of an organisation as a reward for hard work, the employee will be willing to stay loyal for a long period in that, the employee will be obliged to support the particular organisations internal and external activities i.e. outside and within the organisation. On the whole, these motivators helps in providing opportunities for increased skills, flexible working and individual development. Motivators also provide social companionship and a sense of pride in the overall working relationship in regards to achievements derived from motivating workers in the correct manner. Further Analysis: GAINING EMPLOYEE COOPERATION THROUGH MOTIVATION It is essential that the reward strategy adopted by employers fulfills employees needs i.e. if motivation to work is to be maintained or increased, it is necessary that an individual is convinced that by putting in extra effort at work, his/her performance will be improved and that the reward he/she values will be forthcoming. In order to gain employee cooperation, employers focus on motivating employees in various ways depending on the organisation involved, some of the methods used in achieving this are as follows; * Job Security by providing a secure job opportunity, workers will have the opportunity for career progression, therefore, they will feel motivated to work hard so as to get on. A major example of this relates to the Japanese economy that is, because employers often offer a job for life to potential individuals thus, they tend to expect a high degree of loyalty from their workers as well as commitment to work to the very best of their ability. * Merit Rating this refers to recognizing an individuals performance and selecting personal qualities which an organisation believes to be important and assessing these qualities hence, giving the organisation an overall idea on how to reward individual performance effectively. (Ref. Merit rating form appendix 3) * Appraisal this is also used to pin point performance, appraisal is needed for assessing the performance of an individual in discharging specific responsibilities and/or the potential performance of the individual in other roles. Appraisal often involves assessing both job performance and personality characteristics relevant to the particular job. Performance appraisal is an extension and development of merit rating, it may or may not be used as a basis for increase in salary (performance related pay). GAINING EMPLOYEE COOPERATION THROUGH MOTIVATION (CONT.) An example of appraisal of an employee may take the form below; Job Knowledge and Technical Ability Comments Exceptional Good Satisfactory Marginal Inadequate Energy and Application Comments Exceptional Good Satisfactory Marginal Inadequate Organizing Ability Comments Exceptional Good Satisfactory Marginal Inadequate Overall Assessment 1. Reserved for employees whose distinguished performance is clearly obvious to all. 2. Seasoned employees whose performance is noticeable better than satisfactory. 3. Satisfactory 4. Performance close to being satisfactory but needs further development. 5. Performance clearly below the accountability level required for a certain task or set of tasks (this may include newcomers). 6. Totally unsatisfactory (Ref. Performance Appraisal by: T.L . Whisler and S.F . Harper, research and practice by: Holt, Rinehart and Winston) GAINING EMPLOYEE COOPERATION THROUGH MOTIVATION (CONT.) * Incentive Schemes this may be used to gain cooperation due to the fact that it is a valuable motivator. Incentive schemes means the payment to employees of a regular bonus related to productivity, this is designed to encourage employees to cooperate with management in raising productivity and the overall performance of the organisation. This emphasizes the relationship between performance and payment, in that money remains a major motivator in enhancing growth in the level of work performed. * Management By Objectives this focuses on increasing workers performance by agreeing individual objectives with managers and measuring progress by the degree of attainment of the objectives i.e. management by objectives involves setting specific organizational objectives for a future time period. This is a mutual setting of objectives between each position holder and his/her supervisor and the use of the objectives as standards for evaluating the employees performance. MBOs are used in gaining cooperation in regards to employee and employer relationship that is, employees will respond a lot better to discussions rather than orders/commands. POTENTIAL BENEFITS REGARDING GOOD COOPERATION As established by Frank Herzberg (1968), increased job satisfaction will not always result in increased performance but nevertheless increasing the level of job satisfaction within an organisation has lots of advantages i.e. in relation to the organisation, the managers and each individual employee. Potential benefits Potential benefits to employees to management * more interesting work Through better Through increased * scope for development working methods motivation * more autonomy * companionship and team pride * share in any benefits to employers * better quality * reduced absence * lower turnover * more flexibility * higher productivity Potential organizational benefits * high level of commitment to the organisation * improved industrial relations climate * organisation growth This table lays emphasis on improving job design and work organisation to meet individual needs. (Ref. The effective manager, book 4, open university, 1990) POTENTIAL BENEFITS REGARDING GOOD COOPERATION (CONT.) Benefits which are derived from successful communication between employers and employees includes; Organizational Benefits: * In a situation whereby employees are satisfied with the work they perform as well as their working environment, employees tend to identify more closely with the actual organisation. * Employees who are committed to the organisation are likely to work harder towards organizational goals, seize opportunities, contribute new ideas and act as good public relations officers for their employer. * Effective communication within an organisation will also give rise to less chance of industrial disputes in that, employees will have little or no dissatisfaction and the organisation as a whole can therefore expect to survive competition and prosper. Management Benefits: * If workers are highly motivated, managers will be able to expect better quality performance. * The symptoms of dissatisfaction i.e. absenteeism and illness will be minimal or not present hence, the management will be able to discover that staff are willing and able to perform a range of tasks if their individual skills and abilities are fully developed. On the long run, this benefit will lead to improved productivity and better quality service. Individual Benefits: * If a person with certain skills and abilities finds his/her job suited to the qualities he/she possess, the work the individual participate in, will become more interesting and therefore less likely to produce stress or dissatisfaction. * A job which involves various source of motivation i.e. providing an individual with a scope for development, this will be encouraging to the individual, hence, the particular person will then be able to focus on opportunities for improvement and advancement. On the whole, the level of advantages of job satisfaction outweighs its disadvantages hence, in a situation whereby everybody works hand in hand with a view of a common interest i.e. putting aside personal differences, the organisation tend to survive on the long run the young business enterprise group A is a perfect example to qualify this statement. CONCLUSION: Motivation in Regards to Group Development In order for people to get along well enough as a group so as to be able to benefit the business as a whole, motivators such as praise, autonomy, giving ideas, feedback and so on was implemented in that, for us to achieve each group development stage effectively before moving to the next important stage, it is vital for each group member to deal with the tasks given to the best of his/her ability. * Praise this was used indirectly at regular intervals, so as to show an appreciation for a good level of effort put in by each group member. * Autonomy enough opportunity was given to each group member to work on certain tasks as an individual thus, giving the person overall responsibility without too much questioning. * Giving Ideas each group member was involved in the initial brainstorm for the product ideas as well as designs to be produced and each and every idea brought forward was welcomed and discussed in further depth hence, making each group member feel as part of the business which alternatively led to intense commitment. * Feedback people need to know whether they are performing their jobs satisfactorily, they need praise for doing things well and they need help and advice if they are not performing up to standard, this is achieved through feedback during business meetings. This is used to the advantage of the business venture, in that, people who are not pulling their weight (contributing) were told directly by group members to do so, thus, giving rise to people actually performing much better in some cases and no apparent change in other cases. On the whole, the level of motivational skills applied to the business venture proves to be effective for the individuals within the group as well as in the general group development.

Customer behaviour brand loyalty and retention

Customer behaviour brand loyalty and retention Introduction Usually loyalty is expressed by different tendencies towards the brand, store or service. Expressing through attitudes and behaviour generally show these tendencies. Previous work has concentrated more in the service industry, on how repeated the purchases are, i.e. retention and advocacy of the brand (Reichheld, 1996). Retention can be measured by duration of time, in numerous service and utility markets, as a customer. In terms of grocery market, where consumers use several suppliers, the share of category expenditure is one of the behavioural criterion of loyalty and is committed to a brand or store (Cunningham 1956, Dunn and Wrigley, 1984). In service market, while measuring the attitude, researchers have used psychological states such as satisfaction, commitment and trust (Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Ennew and Binks, 1996). Whereas attitude to the brand or the store has been used for the grocery markets. These are the forms of customer loyalty. This paper defines loyalty and talks about the meanings and the complications related to it. As the forms of loyalty are explained initially, further more the relationship between these forms and loyalty is presented with an in depth evidence. This paper also shows the implications of how marketers can implement the customer loyalty in the on the basis of the research carried by few practioners. Defining Loyalty: Meanings and complexities Loyalty can concentrate more on single concept, it can be either attitudinal or behavioural. Though, a great deal of debate over loyalty has focused more on convoluted definitions that may comprise both consequences and antecedents of loyalty. Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) came up with a six-component definition of loyalty that incorporated behaviour and attitude. This method of the conceptualisation of loyalty appears to be partially associated to a requirement to represent the causes of loyalty, and partially semantic, that this is what loyalty means. Semantic considerations provide an establishment in scientific definition, on the contrary the thought that attitude-behaviour congruence is necessary for loyalty looks ill founded. The definition by Oliver (1999) involves a positive relation between behaviour and attitude in loyal groups but Oliver states that this relation is typically very weak and finalises that the loyalty to a brand, which is true and which involves emotional commitment and its rare. This definition of Oliver raises problems and doubts as the casual description of loyalty without any circularity, does not makes it possible to test this causality. Even though while describing loyalty unites various meanings, its definitions must be singular and noticeably associated to measurement. East, Sinclair and Gendall (2000) argue that this is essential, as measures of the singular forms of loyalty could confirm slight correlation. The study of Dunn and Wrigley (1984) showed little correlation amongst few stores used and the share of expenditure given to the primary store. While in the case of store research, East et al. (2000) discovered merely a weak link between retention and share loyalty. This is possibly predicted. Theoretically, share of category and retention are fairly different and there is no stipulation that a customer buying a huge share of a brand must retain that brand for a long time compared to a small-share customer. Weak correlations have too been discovered between the evaluative and behavioural facets of loyalty. East and Hammond (1999) analysed the association between satisfaction and true retention. Their study st ates that most researches about customer loyalty have shown weak relations, in spite of extensive administrative postulation to the contrary. In such conditions it looks like it would be imprudent to generate permutation measures of loyalty that contain both evaluative and behavioural aspects, as the two components seem to have restricted relation. Brand and Customer Loyalty The study of Jacoby and Chestnut (1978) shows the basic difference between behavioural loyalty and cognitive loyalty; therefore clearing the concept of repurchase behaviour is not an adequate requirement of brand loyalty. The early studies of loyalty have focused on two most important phenomena. There has been research on the substantiation of loyalty behaviours for more than a brand, differentiated by changeable levels of complentarity/substitutability and hence the reasons of switching behaviour (Wind, 1977; Jacoby and Chestnut, 1978; Wernerfelt, 1991; Keaveney, 1995). As different studies on loyalty have increased knowledge of its various forms, they fail to examine the progress of loyalty over the time, without any explanation of how and why these various forms of loyalty arise. An active approach, if it is appropriately measured, can give an explanation of the various configurations of customer loyalty in the range of stages of the relationship life cycle (Costabile. M, no date) . (See figure 1. In appendix) Oliver states that this form of customer loyalty is a process of four chronological stages. After passage of time and continuous purchases in the third stage, most concentrated stage of loyalty is attained. According to Crosby and Taylor (1983) model for voter behaviour analysis, Loyalty is now cognitive by becoming a motivating force. The action control concept of Kuhl and Beckmann (1985), most concentrated stage of loyalty is recognized as action loyalty. Therefore it can be said that loyalty that is kept not only on the basis of strong motivation, but results in actions taken to get rid of every obstacle that will interfere while deciding of purchasing a brand to which a person is loyal. Customer buying behaviour and Loyalty Customer satisfaction and relationship marketing fields can be found from the involvement towards understanding customer behaviour and their purchase habits after their first preference of a supplier, brand or a store. Satisfaction and Loyalty Exploring the concept self-esteem, Hoppe (1930) and Lewin (1936) found the basics of the confirmation/disconfirmation model helpful to describe the satisfaction opinion and the association between satisfaction and trust. What is appropriate in this theory is not just about how this satisfaction model behaves, but also the confirmation of close links between satisfaction over trust and time (Bitner, 1995; Costabile 1998). There have been few developments in the study of customer satisfaction recently. This study has examined the emotional aspects of satisfaction and the dynamics of the model over time (Westbrook, 1987; Oliver, 1997; Fournier and Mick, 1999). Marketing researchers are also putting efforts to understand the variables that interfere between the opinion of satisfaction and the preference of repurchase of a brand (Oliver, 1999). Even though satisfaction-trust- loyalty association has not constantly been confirmed therefore obvious high degrees of satisfaction might not result in a behaviour, distinguished by high loyalty, and vice versa (Jacoby and Chetsnut, 1978), due to the several overruling variables during the process of exchanging over the time (Jones and Sasser Jr., 1995; Oliver, 1999). Retention and Loyalty Debates on customer loyalty use the idiom loyalty and retention synonymously. Nevertheless the literature states that there is criticism of organisations that have elected to define customer loyalty as simply customer retention, hence attaining repurchase. Stewart (1996) states that Customer loyalty and customer retention are not synonymous (Stewart, 1996 p.8). In the Relationship Marketing ladder of Customer Loyalty (See figure 2 in appendix) of Christopher, Payne and Ballantyne (1991), they state that the consumer advances up the ladder from regular purchasers (retention), to strong supporters of the firm and ultimately to being active and vocal promoters of the firm referring others to the organisation. As stated by Prus and Brandt (1995) that Loyal customers repeatedly purchase products or services. They recommend a company to others. And they stick with a business over time. Therefore customer loyalty is a more convoluted observable fact that comprises other assets rather than j ust the behavioural theory of repurchasing (Samuelson Sandvik, 1997). Recommendation and Duration of time According to East, Wright, Vanhuele (2008), consumers would value their suppliers when they possibly will find out more about the qualities of the suppliers offering over time and those who do not like their supplier change the supplier, approving consumers stay. Regardless of these effects Smith and Higgins (2000) and Fournier, Dobscha and Mick (1998) mention how a brand may be prominent once it was obtained and gradually do not talk much about it once it becomes common. This happens because the brands are recommended when there is a change, while a comparatively static product does not have an advantage of a second recommendation. In the earlier research of East et al. (2005a) they discovered either no correlation between recommendation and duration of time or a negative correlation. With the proofs from twenty-three researches they learned that the overall relation between recommendation and duration of time was neutral, whereas the individual correlations varied from considerably negative to considerably positive. According to Reichheld (1996), in few of the cases, have mentioned that customers who are with a supplier for a long duration of time, recommend more. On the other hand East et al. (2005a) do not agree with Reichheld. According to them new customers will give more recommendation compared to customers with long duration of time. Attitudinal aspects and Loyalty The evaluation of the study of repurchase and loyalty and satisfaction and loyalty has recommended that loyalty comprises attitudinal aspects. Further, a study that supports the involvement of an individuals attitudes is describing loyalty is presented. Commitment and Trust It is commitment that differentiates between repeat purchase and loyalty as per the debate of Jacoby and Kyner (1973). Hence a person loyal to a product or a service has an attitude, which is strong and full of impact. While considering commitment it would seem to be affective and calculative commitment. The definition of affective commitment is the extent to which a customer likes to maintain their relationship with the organisation (Buchanan, 1974). While the definition of calculative commitment is where the customer is loyal because they have to be rather than that they desire to be (Meyer Allen, 1984). Therefore the calculative committed consumer is not very reliable as he can get an offer that allows him to change suppliers. Samuelson and Sandvik (1997) recommend that whichever or both types of commitment possibly will be used in loyalty study and is reliant upon the reason of the study. For example, to forecast prospect loyal behaviour affective commitment will be very effecti ve. Hart and Johnson (1999) have mentioned that as loyalty is conventionally defined in as per its occurrence, that is referral intent, repurchase intent, share of purchase and actual repurchase. They recommend that for organisations to attain true loyalty then they need to go further than customer delight to total trust. Therefore it would look as if commitment and trust are important aspects when defining loyalty. Marketing implications of customer loyalty The majority of the customer loyalty programs that have presently been implemented by companies appear to be intended at encouraging repeat purchases (Hart et al. 1999). Several companies then, spend a substantial amount in lock in policies so that they could raise the costs of switching in a brand or a supplier (Shapiro and Varian, 1999). It is obvious that the customer loyalty objective must be mainly aimed at the top most and promising customer segments, and it is also evident that not all relationship has to be dealt in an evolutionary viewpoint. Potential value must not be described exclusively considering the profit or income flows to be gained, but more than all when thinking of opportunities in terms of growth that the relationship provides the company are development of business and the trust and knowledge resources (Costabile. M, no date). On the basis of the study of Dowling and Uncle (1997) the following could be the implication for company to employ customer loyalty. For a company to perform loyalty marketing still, it is first essential to identify the loyal consumers. When the customers grow, the use of market research and database marketing in the nonexistence of own knowledge is essential. Companies into direct marketing are endeavoring to come up with loyalty programs, which attach the purchasers of a broad variety of consumer goods and services to a meticulous provider or a brand. In cases of firms that have very less data regarding their customers, a supplementary advantage of customer loyalty programs is that members will repeatedly see themselves during buying or service delivery. Membership cards are a rapid and proficient means for customers to indicate that they are worthy of special attention. Many airlines, and successful companies like General Motors, American Express, Nestle, Holiday Inn, Unilever an d shell have experienced adequate advantages in customer loyalty programs to apply such schemes. For example, in the rebate scheme of General Motors (the GM card), it permits members to collect savings towards the cost of a new GM car, the car and not the collection of a discount is dominant. Another good example is of Australian Fly Buys frequent-buyer program. The members registered for the Fly Buys program can collect points for free air tickets and accommodation in hotel either by using credit card or a membership card. This membership is free of any cost. 1.7 Australians had registered themselves within just one year of the launch. The analysis of customer cost-benefit makes it easier to elucidate why the least desired loyalty program (figure 3 in appendix) fascinated so many, or is it so few members. References Bitner, M. (1995) Building Service Relationship: Its All About Promises, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Fall, 236-245. Buchanan, B. (1974) Building organizational commitment: the socialization of managers in work organization, Adm Sci Q 1974;19:533-46. Christopher, M., Payne, A. and Ballantyne (1991) Relationship marketing: Bringing quality, customer service, and marketing together. Oxford and Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. Costabile, M. 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(1985), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior, Berlin, Springer-Verlag. Lewin, K. (1936) Principles of Topological Psychology, New York, McGraw Hill. Mark, C; Kate, S. and Ray, K. (1996) Customer defection: a study of the student market in Ireland, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 14 Iss: 3, pp.23 29. Meyer, J. and Allen, N. (1984) Testing the Side-bet theory of organazatonal commitment: some methodological consideration, Journal of applied psychology, [jap]. 69. Morgan, R. and Hunt, S. (1994) The Commitment-Trust Theory of Relationship Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 58 (July), 20-38. Oliver, R. (1997) Satisfaction. A behavioral Perspective on the Consumer, New York, McGraw Hill. Oliver. R. (1999) Whence Consumer Loyalty?, Journal of Marketing, Special Issue, 33-44. Prus, A. and Brandt, D. (1995) Understanding your Customer, Marketing Tools, 2(5), pp. 10-14. Reichheld, F. (1996a), The Loyalty Effect, Boston, Harvard Business School Publications. 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Air pollution control residues

Air pollution control residues INTRODUCTION Description of Overall Problem Air Pollution Control (APC) residues are the solid output of the flue gas treatment equipment installed on incinerators (this report refers specifically to APC Residues from incinerators handling Municipal Solid Waste MSW). They comprise the fly ash from incineration (middle and fine grades) together with the reagents (mainly lime and activated carbon) used in the flue gas treatment. Thus, they contain: Volatile contaminants from the original waste (inc chlorides, metals), Compounds created in the incineration process (inc dioxins), Further materials from the flue-gas treatment process (sulphates, together with high alkalinity). Therefore they are classified as hazardous waste. Approximately 170,000t/y (Technology Strategy Board 2009) of such residues are produced in the UK 3-4% of the total waste mass incinerated (Environment Agency, 2002). This tonnage is growing as more waste is incinerated to generate electricity and heat, and to reduce landfill. While increased energy recovery and reduced landfill are worthwhile in themselves, achieving them has created the problem of the hazardous APC residues. In the UK the prevalent destination for these residues has been landfill, but this option is under threat from tightening landfill Waste Acceptance Criteria, and rising landfill taxes, so new solutions are required. There are various treatment/recovery options available for APC residues. However these raise other concerns, primarily: Financial and energy cost of treatment Generation of further effluent Environmental impact of the treated waste Quality control of the recovered materials. Objectives and Scope The overall goal is to identify cost-effective management options for APC residues, within Waste Acceptance Criteria. The ultimate objectives of implementing such options are shown in Requirements (Appendix 1). For this study, the specific the objectives are: Briefly analyse the shortcomings of the existing methods of treatment and disposal of APC residue in landfills, along with the barriers in the UK for re-use of APC residues in various industries, such as cement aggregate, asphalt and ceramics. Propose energy- and cost-effective methods for the treatment of APC residue which reduce the leachability and amount of heavy metal/dioxins present. Also suggest a supplier of technology for each treatment method proposed. Compare the cost per tonne for each option, including treatment and disposal costs (including current and future landfill taxes), based on the hazardous classification of any remaining waste. Suggest potential re-use opportunities for materials recovered from the treatment process, indicating potential markets and revenues. The scope is focused on APC residues from municipal waste incineration. It is assumed that current incineration technology and operating conditions apply, with waste of current composition, resulting in residues of current composition. The objectives have been pursued in the context of current UK and EU regulation. This is explained in terms of the waste management hierarchy in table 1. Notes of Figure 1: Further processing leading to recovery may be in or outside the system boundary depending on whether the process is likely to be dedicated to this application. In either case the resulting wastestreams are inside the system boundary Landfill operations are outside the system boundary, but the long term leaching behaviour of all landfill waste will be considered, even if it meets WAC. Report structure This report has been structured to give an overall review of the management options for the Air Pollution Control residue, intended to provide a details of the findings related with work aiming to give recommendations on its treatment. Chapter 1. Background and scope. Chapter 2. Introduction to the residues, overview of major management strategies, legislative aspects, and environmental issues Chapter 3. Details on the residue treatment techniques, operation principles, and development status Chapter 4. Appraisal on the recovery and utilization techniques, operation principles, and development status. Chapter 5. Overview of status for available solutions, documentation level, assessment approach for environmental impacts, outline of important aspects for consideration, qualitative and quantitative comparison of each treatment processes. Chapter 6. Recommendations System Engineering Management Plan (SEMP) is listed in Appendix 2. This is an outline of system requirements and mechanisms for verifying whether the requirements are met. It will provide an overview to integrate different technical elements of the project. The plan will also describe the activities, processes and tools used to ensure an achievement of the project outcomes to the client and other stakeholders. Press Release is placed in Appendix 3 and this would form a basis of a publicity campaign for the project. MANAGEMENT AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR APC RESIDUE APC residues generation and characteristics APC residues come from the cleaning process of the gaseous emissions, which are produced during the incineration. Dry and semi-dry scrubber systems are used in the cleaning process and involve the injection of an alkaline material to remove acid gases, particulates and flue gas condensation (Sabbas et al. 2003). Finally, fabric filters in baghouses are used, where the fine particulates, i.e. the APC residues are focalized and removed from the gaseous emissions (Sabbas et al. 2003). It is estimated that APC residues represent 2-5% of the original waste on a wet basis and their production in the UK is approximately 128,000 tonnes per annum (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). In general, APC residues from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) consist of fly ash, carbon and lime and contain dioxins and furans (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). They are highly alkaline materials (pH 12.0-12.6) and they comprise significant concentration of heavy metals, salts and micro-pollutants (Sabbas et al. 2003 ). Depending on the initial waste composition, the incinerator and the air pollution control system, their composition may vary significantly (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). The typical range of APC residues composition is shown in table 2. The APC residues are characterized as hazardous wastes (190107*, according to the EWC) due to their chemical content and their impact on the environment, primarily by leaching. Regulatory Framework Introduction Regulations and legislation on waste management in the UK have evolved considerably over the years as a result of identification of new pollutants, public health and environmental concerns, economics and technological advancement (Pocklington, 1997 and McDougall et al, 2001). This assertion suggests that legislation and regulations play a major role in ensuring sustainable waste management. In addition, the establishment of legislation on waste management shows the radically changing perception of humans and communities towards the environmental impact of human activities (Pocklington, 1997). Today, regulations and legislation provide a framework for efficient handling of hazardous wastes such as APC residue. Amutha Rani et al (2008) observed that sustainable management of APC residues depend on the implementation of UK and EU waste management legislation. The Existing regulatory and legislative framework for managing APC residues in the UK About 80% of the environmental legislation in the UK have their origins in the European Commission laws (Pocklington, 1997). The existing legislative and regulatory framework for APC waste management in the UK and EU include: Waste Incineration Directive Integrated Pollution Control Directive Landfill Directive and ensuing waste acceptance criteria/procedure EA guidance on the classification of hazardous waste Water Framework Directive However, the discussion on the regulatory and legislative framework for this project focuses mainly on the UK Landfill directive and EA guidance on classification of hazardous wastes. These subjects are pertinent within the boundary of this project more so as Landfill disposal is common in the UK. Also IPPC directive is discussed briefly to highlight the roles public participation and deployment of best available techniques in meeting our objectives. The key objectives of these legislation and regulation are to: Reduce the amount of APC residue generated and improving the quality of exhaust gas (McDougall et al, 2001) Reduce the amount of APC going to Landfill (EA Guidance on landfill, 2006) Prevent environmental impact (ESA 2004) Reduce the risk of human harm (US National Research Council 2000, ESA 2004) This diagram illustrates the relationships between the established regulatory framework and stages in the APC management process. There is no specific legislation covering recovery or reclassification of APC residue in the UK (ESA 2004). Quina et al (2008) also points out that legislation for recycling APC has not yet been established in the UK. The Integrated Pollution Control Directive: Directive 2008/1/EC concerning integrated pollution prevention and control This Directive aims at establishing means to prevent or reduce emissions into air, water and land (IPPC, 2008). Hence this directive is crucial as it suggests various methods of incineration and treatment that could reduce the impact of APC residues on the environment during incineration, treatment or landfill. The IPPC Directive is based on four principles namely: Best Available Technique (BAT) Integrated waste management Flexibility Public participation The BAT refers to the most effective methods of operation that would reduce environmental impact and enhance results such as making residues from incineration less hazardous. In the BAT, optimizing resources and harnessing or saving energy are prioritized (Gargulas N. and Mentzis A, 2007). Also, the BAT is flexible and no terms are imposed since it recognizes that different conditions apply in different cases. The Best Available Techniques Reference (BREF) is a reference document on technical input needed to determine the BAT to be adopted. This BREF contains technical information on available means of treating APC residues such as sintering, vitrification, stabilization and solidification. This project has considered the BATs to APC treatment and these methods are discussed in chapter 3. However, there are no BATs available for landfills. Notwithstanding, Landfill operators and APC treatment plants require permits issued by the Environment Agency with public support to ensure that t here are no health or environmental impacts as a result of their activities (Macleod C. et al 2006 and IPPC 2008). The role of the public is crucial in this directive. Article 15 of the Directive, gives the public full privileges to participate in decision making processes leading to the issuance of permits for installation of plants, and for carrying out technical and administrative changes. This aspect is very important especially in the proper project planning and execution (see SEMP). Therefore the installations of APC treatment facilities and the method involved are tailored to meet public requirements as well as legislative requirements. All hazards inherent in operating APC treatment facilities shall be made known to the public in accordance to this directive. Also the outcome of compliance tests on treatment facilities with regard to environmental impact shall be made public (IPPC 2008). Thus, it can be argued that since the public are key stakeholders in this project, good public perception is needed in accordance with the IPPC directive to ensure sustainable management of APC residues. Environment Agency guidance on classification of hazardous waste The essence of this guidance is to distinguish different kinds of wastes based on their physical and chemical properties which include their toxicity or hazardous nature. The Hazardous Waste Directive (HWD), council directive 91/689/EC and the Revised European Waste Catalogue (EWC) form the regulatory framework for this guidance. The HWD aims at defining hazardous wastes to ensure the correct management and regulation of such waste (EA Hazardous Waste 2008, pg 5). This directive identifies 14 hazardous properties of wastes, thus hazardous wastes are classified H1 H14 according to their hazardous properties (EA, Hazardous waste 2008). The EWC code is derived from the industry and process producing the waste, and the type of waste (EA hazardous waste 2008). APC residues are categorized as hazardous wastes with absolute entry (Rani et al 2008 and ESA 2004). Under the European Waste Catalogue (EWC), APC residues fall under the category of wastes from incinerators (waste management facilities) that have a generic code 19. The specific code for solid wastes generated from gas treatment such as APC residues is 19 01 07. Wastes resulting from the treatment of the APC residues such as the partially stabilized APC residue, the vitrified material etc are also categorized as hazardous with absolute entry (EA hazardous waste 2008). However, when tests confirm that the constituents of treated waste have become less or non hazardous, they can be reclassified as hazardous wastes with mirror entry or non-hazardous as the case may be(EA Hazardous waste 2008). Solidified and partly stabilized wastes are coded 19 03 06 and 19 06 04 respectively with absolute entries, while vitrified wastes from flue gas treatment are assigned the code 19 04 02. The Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste The primary objectives of the landfill directive are: To reduce waste going to landfill the prevent or minimize environmental impact as a result of waste disposal Stringent measures and standards have been set to reduce the burden and reliance on landfill (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). Landfills are classified into three categories: non-hazardous, inert and hazardous landfills (Landfill (England and Wales) Regulations, 2002) For APC residues, a key requirement in the Directive prior to landfill is to perform tests to determine its long term and short term leaching behaviour and to carry out treatment to reduce its toxicity (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). This project suggests that the need for treatment of APC residues augments the case for exploring potentials for recovery or reclassification of the residues. Article 6 c (iii) of the Directive reflects our aim to make APC residues at least stable non-reactive hazardous wastes (SNRHW) or completely non-hazardous through efficient treatment techniques such as vitrification, washing, stabilization and plasma technology. SNRHW are known to have low leaching potentials (EA guidance on landfill, 2006). Treated APC residues with leaching behaviour equivalent to those of non-hazardous waste can be disposed at designated non-hazardous landfill subject to meeting the relevant waste acceptance criteria (EA guidance on landfill, 2006 and Landfill (England and Wales) Regulation, 2002). APC residues must meet the waste acceptance criteria (WAC) for a designated landfill after treatment. Schedule 1 of the Landfill (England and Wales) (Amendment) Regulation 2004, stipulates the procedure and criteria for disposing or accepting waste at landfills. Waste Acceptance Criteria and Procedure The WAC is elaborately designed to deal with the technical requirement of wastes such as APC residues designated for landfills in the UK (England and Wales). It also aims at controlling the disposal of wastes into landfill which is a common practice in the UK. Technically, the WAC ensures that the numerical leaching characteristics of APC residue are determined prior to disposal at landfill (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). Thus, after their mandatory treatment, APC residues must meet the relevant waste acceptance criteria before they are accepted into landfill. The leaching characteristics include: the elements and compounds in APC residue and their leaching properties (in mg/kg or L/S) and the hazardous nature of the APC residue (EA Guidance on Landfill, 2006). The Environment agency is responsible towards ensuring that the criteria for particular landfills are met. Preceding the WAC is the Waste acceptance procedure. The Waste acceptance procedure for APC requires basic characterization, compliance testing and on-site verification (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). The basic characterization is done to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of the waste (EA Guidance on Landfill 2006). Incineration plants are responsible for carrying out the basic characterization of the APC residues since they produce the APC while the landfill operator ensures that compliance testing and on-site verification are done (EA Guidance 2006). Approved tests are defined in schedule1 part 2 of the landfill regulation 2004 and they include tests for determining treated APC composition and leaching behaviour. The compliance tests are carried out to verify if leaching limit levels predicted in the basic characterization are credible. Besides exploring opportunities for reuse of APC residues and recovery of valuable materials from the residues, this project also aims to treat APC residues to meet at least the waste acceptance criteria for SNRHW to enable disposal at a non-hazardous landfill. Amendment 14 of the Landfill (England and Wales) regulation 2004 states the criteria for disposing SNRHW in the non-hazardous landfill. Discussions There is no specific legislation on the reuse of wastes such as the APC residues in the UK. Notwithstanding, the UK without incineration network (www.ukwin.org.uk) tagged the use of fly ash and APC residues for construction works as irresponsible. Thus it can be suggested that re-use is implied in this clause as well. However, if it is well proven that APC residues can be managed sustainably without any long or short term environmental repercussions, it will pave way for debates to strengthen the existing regulatory frame and also re-focus the views of environmental activists toward the prospects in the residues. ESA report (2004) argues the provision of regulatory certainty by the government is necessary in enhancing investment towards sustainable management of APC residues. The report also suggests that investments will focus on reliable APC treatment technologies. There are several scientific developments for managing APC residues pioneered by waste management companies such as Techtronic in the UK. Environmental problems and management strategies Most of the APC residues (around 88%) (Environmental Agency, 2002) produced in the UK, are disposed of into landfills. During their disposal or any kind of utilization or handling, a number of environmental impacts can be caused. Dust and Gas emissions Dust emissions are represented as a potential risk, due to the size of the APC residues particles (0.001-1 mm) (Sabbas et al., 2003). Despite the easily dispersion of these fine particles, a survey by the Environmental Agency at a number of landfill sites in the UK testifies that their concentrations are within the recommended air quality objectives (Environmental Agency, 2002). Gas production is another potential environmental impact related to the disposal of APC residues. Gas is produced by metallic aluminum hydration (Sabbas et al., 2003) and because of that, some explosions have been reported (Sabbas et al., 2003). However, the production of gas is significantly lower compared to the production of the municipal solid waste landfills, due to their low biodegradable content of the APC residues. Leaching production The major environmental impact is the leaching production of APC residues The leaching behaviour of the elements present in APC residues is the main source of environmental concern. Leachates can cause pollution of soil, groundwater and surface water bodies. The leaching behavior of the APC residues is very complex and depends on a lot of parameters. The pH and the liquid to solid (L/S) ratio of the residues that will occur in the landfill site are important factors which affect determine their leaching behaviorbehaviour as well as the availability of the elements which are contained in the APC residues. The pH depends on the characteristics of the leaching fluid and the waste, i.e. APC residues, and is the key factor of many elements leachability. Leaching of most major elements (e.g. Al, Ca, S, Mg) and heavy metals (e.g. Cd, Pb, Zn) are strongly pH-dependent (Astrup et al., 2006). This dependency of the pH causes a significant difficulty on the prediction of the leaching behaviorbehaviour. Generally, APC residues carry on their pH in alkaline values for a long time (many thousands of years) (Astrup et al., 2006). However, their pH decreases as the time passes and the APC residues are washed by the infiltrating water (the neutralize capacity decreases) (Astrup et al., 2006). Thus, the prediction of the landfills pH and thereby the leaching behaviorbehaviour of the residues in over a long term period is complex. The L/S ratio represents the amount of the leachate that comes in contact with a given amount of APC residues (Sabbas et al. 2003 pp what page?) and depends on the characteristics of the APC residues and the climatic conditions, the hydrology and the hydrogeology of the area (Sabbas et al. 2003). Usually, as the time of disposal passes the value of the L/S ratio becomes higher for a particular application site. Due to this contact the properties of the waste as well as the leaching behaviorbehaviour of the waste change. Thus, the value of this ratio is a very important parameter for the leachate content. The availability for leaching is a parameter, which characterizes the particular waste and represents a fraction of the total content of contaminants in the waste itself (Sabbas et al. 2003). The typical values of the availability for the APC residues are shown in table 2 and they can provide a theoretical estimation of the maximum release of a contaminant in a period of 1000 to 10000 years (Sabbas et al. 2003). The prediction of the leaching behaviour and the evaluation of the environmental impact of APC residues are based on leaching tests. Leaching values for the APC residues arising from leaching test are summarized in table 4. The first leachate from APC residues is usually characterized from soluble salts (e.g. chlorides, hydroxides of calcium, sodium and potassium) and trace element such as Pb and Mo (Sabbas et al., 2003). Contrary to the high solubility of this elements, the solubility of toxic organic compounds is believed to be not high due to their hydrophobic nature and their low concentration in APC residues (from properly operated MSWI plants) (Sabbas et al., 2003). Long term leachate concentrations are usually lower than the initial or they may remain atto the same level. The only exceptions are the elements Al and Zn, which concentrations in the leachate are increase d inover a long term period (Astrup et al., 2006). As it is explained above the leaching behaviour of the APC residues depends on the environmental conditions and changes during the time of the disposal. Thus, an analytical prediction of the long term leaching behaviour is very difficult and it should be based on a combination of information on leaching principles, leaching tests, field measurements, simulation of mineral changes and speciation (Sabbas et al., 2003 page number pls). Due to the complexity of the long term leaching behaviour, the data available in literature are limited. Management of APC residues In the UK the disposal of any waste to landfill is regulated (see regulations section). Generally, the landfills are classified as suitable for hazardous, non-hazardous or inter wastes and, for each of these types of landfill, particular leaching limit values (Waste acceptance criteria, WAC) are defined and should be achieved for any waste are to be landfilled. Table 5 shows the leaching limit values (WAC) for the three types of landfill sites and if they are compared with the values in table 4, it becomes obvious that APC residues cannot be landfilled without a prior treatment. And non-hazardous waste deposited in the same cell. Either TOC or LOI must be used for hazardous wastes. UK PAH limit values are under development. Following the recent consultation exercise the UK Govt may review the limit values in tow years time (2006). If an inert waste does not meet the SO4 at L/S 10 limit, alternative limit values of 1500 mg/l SO4 at C2 (initial eluate from the percolation test) prEN 14,405 and 6000 mg/kg SO4 at L/S10 (either from percolation test or bach test BS EN 12457-3), can be used to demonstrate compliance with the acceptance criteria for inert wastes. The values for TDS can be used instead of the values for Cl and SO4. Or DOC at pH 7.5-8.0 and L/S 10 can be determined on pr EN 14429 (pH dependent test) eluates. Disposal to landfill (Amutha Rani et al., 2008) APC residues are mixed with wastewater to form a solidified product. During this treatment the residues react with the CO2 from the atmosphere reducing the pH to values between 8 and 9. This mixing also eliminates the dispersion of the APC residues particles. After this treatment, the APC residues reach the WAC and they are landfilled into monofill cells at a hazardous waste landfill. This process is used by a treatment plant in GloucesstershireGloucestershire, from which most of the APC residues treated by this method in the UK are coming. Storage in salt mines In this disposal method the APC residues are loaded in sealed capsules and pitted 170m below the surface (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). The disposal in salt mines can take place for a long term. They are characterized as well isolated, very dry, with stable atmosphere and natural gas-impermeable salt layers (Clement, 2000). Salt mine for this purpose is located in Cheshire, England, where a major percentage of the APC residues, produced in the UK, are stored (Amutha Rani et al., 2008). Use in waste acid treatment (Amutha Rani et al., 2008) Due to the mixing of waste acid (usually HCl) and APC residues, the lime content of the APC residues is convertedsed into less hazardous components (CaCl2) and the concentrations of Zn and Pb are reduced. Furthermore, the pH is at high levels, preventing the salts release. Thus, the final mixture from this process is non-hazardous and it is described as sludge from a physico/chemical treatment; it is classified as EWC code 190206 and can be disposed of in non-hazardous landfills. TREATMENT TECHNIQUES Ash Washing Process Description: The objective of Ash washing process is to extract a number of minerals from the APC residue obtained after Municipal Solid Waste incineration and thereby diminish the leachability of various compounds remaining in the residue. The process also aims to improve the quality of the residue obtained for further re-use applications or to reduce the overall content of waste going to the landfill. According to Quina et al (2001), ash washing, acid leaching, electro-chemical process and thermal treatment are some of the most widely used methods for extracting metal values from the APC residues. The separation techniques studied in this section are ash washing with MgSO4, bioleaching using Asphergillus niger fungi and leaching using extracting agents. Each process has different prerequisites, operation time and cost, objectives and risks associated with them. Ash Washing With MgSO4: Chimenos et al (2005) The process aims to apply the optimum parameters for washing APC residue by utilising minimum energy and water. This process uses multi-stage washing process to diminish the leaching of chloride and sulphate salts present in APC residue and thereby ensuring that the amount of harmful substance present in wastewater is reduced. The wastewater produced is recycled and re-used in the process using employing a rapid spray evaporation technique which runs on the waste heat produced from pumps, turbines and incineration furnace. Figure 3a showsrepresent the overall process diagram of operation. The research conducted by Zhang et al (2008) shows that the leachability of the heavy metals and chlorides present in APC residue depends on its pH level. The pH of the solution, when MgSO4 is added during the washing process, may be controlled by the formation of gypsum as shown in Eq(1). Ca(OH)2 + MgSO4 CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2..(1) Bioleaching Q.Wang et al (2009) This process is considered to be a biohydrometallurgical approach to extract heavy metals from APC residue. It is considered to be a green technology because of it makes use of the natural ability of microorganisms to break down solid compounds into soluble and extractable form by enzymatic oxidation or reduction. The process uses the acids secreted by Aspergillus niger fungi such as oxalic acid, citric acid and gluconic acids to extract the heavy metals present. Water-washing was is used as a pre-treatment before the bioleaching process to reduce the bio-leaching period from 30 to 20 days and to extract the maximum amount of chloride and sulphate salts. Figure 4 shows an overall process diagram for the bioleaching process. Bioleaching is a low cost and low energy consumption approach. Leaching Using Extracting Agents Fedje et al (2010) This process uses leaching agents other than water for extracting heavy metals like Zn and Pb. The efficiency of the extraction agent depends on heavy metals of interest, the concentration of the extracting solution, the pH and the liquid/Solid ratio used. The goal of the process is obtain a solution in which the concentrations are high enough to enable further separation or recovery. The leaching media used for this process are 3M HNO3 L/S = 5 0.1 M EDTA with pH adjustment L/S = 5 3M NH4NO3 L/S = 5 The choice of these leaching media was based on their ability to form a complex with metal ions. Table 6 compares the efficiency of the aforementioned leaching agent in extracting the heavy metals from APC residue. Figure 5 represents the overall process diagram. The most widespread leaching method used for APC residues is acidic leaching using strong mineral acids such as HCl and H2SO4. However, due to the high alkalinity of APC residues, large amounts of acids are needed which results in trouble with storage and handling. Moreover, the reaction of APC resid

Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle and the Pure Food and Drug Act Essay

Upton Sinclair’s â€Å"The Jungle† and the Pure Food and Drug Act Upton Sinclair’s â€Å"The Jungle,† gave the most in-depth description of the horrid truths about the way America’s food companies, â€Å"the only source of food for people living in the city,† are preparing the food they sell. â€Å"The Jungle† describes the terrible conditions of a Lithuanian family that moved to the US, and had to work, live, and die for the food companies in Chicago. â€Å"The Jungle† spurred a movement in the American people to do something about the problems facing the American food supply. Because of the growing concern about the quality of food in America the government took action to prevent further problems. Thus the Food and Drug Act of 1906 was passed to fix the problems. The Food and Drug Act was a true example of how the people of our nation influenced the government to take action, to solve a growing problem effecting the American people. â€Å"The Jungle† talks about a couple who move to an area of Chicago, â€Å"known as Packtown,† from Lithuania. Packtown is the center of Chicago’s meat packing industry. It is a hard, dangerous, and filthy place where it is difficult to find a job. Some relatives of the couple and themselves get a house, but find out it is a swindle. Expenses increase and forces the children of the family to find work like the adults. Jobs in Packtown are back-breaking , unsafe, and have no regard for individual workers. The oldest of the family gets a job, but it is to difficult for the old man and he quickly dies. The man of the couple, â€Å"Jurgis,† is forced to work in an unheated packing house during the winter. Jurgis is injured and cant work for three months receiving no pay. One of the children dies of food poisoning. Jurgis joins a union and slowly begins to understand the way politics and bribery that control Packingtown. After attacking the boss of his wife for making her sleep with him, Jurgis is put in jail for a month. While in Jail the family has been evicted from there home and is living in a run-down boardinghouse. When Jurgis returns home he finds his wife in premature labor, and in the process of giving birth the child and her. Jurgis disappears on a drinking binge. With the help of a wealthy woman who takes and interest in the family, Jurgis finds a job at a steel mill. He is renewed in hope dedicating himself to Antanas, â€Å"his ... ...lightly to violating its new laws. From respectable authorities on the subject, and the 1906 Food and Drugs Act itself, gave paticual understanding of the events effecting that time period, a understanding of certain points in the novel â€Å"The Jungle†, and how the government went about solving the nation’s going problem, has lead myself to agree that Upton Sinclairs’s â€Å"The Jungle† had a major role in moving the government to clean up the food supply. Which by the approval of the 1906 Food and Drugs Act, the government succeeded in solving the problem. â€Å"The Jungle† showed to the nation the scam of biblical antiquity, that was effecting there very lives. It rallied the people to make the government find a solution to prevent further sicknesses and deaths because of greedy capitalists. The government set forth the Food and Drugs Act of 1906 in response which regulated and examined products developed by food and drug companies. Upton Sinclair provided the motive, and the government supplied the solution. Because of the these two forces we, in our day in time, can rest assured that our food and drugs are of the very top quality, and purity for human consumption.

To Kill a Mockingbird - Equality :: Kill Mockingbird essays

To Kill a Mockingbird - Equality Few people are the same as they are on the street in their homes. Few people can treat others equally; no matter what colour their skin is. Atticus Finch is one of those precious few. Racism in the town of Maycomb is nothing but disguised by the polite smiles and ladies missionary meetings; although it is the strongest belief that each person of the town holds apart from some such as Atticus. Racism is an issue of great importance, yet to the eye of a visitor waltzing through, it's just a slight whisk of air. Atticus is a good man, a just man. He upholds his morals, and judges by his conscience. He is shaken but not moved by the town of Maycomb in their gossip and hypocritical ways. When offered Tom's case, Atticus knows he will take it on. He won't just stand there with no proper defense for Tom, but he will let the truth be known, and prove that Tom is innocent. "...that boy might go to the chair, but he's not going till the truth's told." If Atticus didn't take on the case, he couldn't hold his head up in town; couldn't represent this country in the legislature; couldn't even tell Scout or Jem not to do something again'. "...before I can live with other folks I've got to live with myself. The one thing that doesn't abide by majority rule is a person's conscience." Atticus has a clear mind. He will not sit by and watch as his two children are abused and their views twisted to match the society of racism they live amongst. Atticus builds his morals up in the children very evidently, although no so much as to draw attention. He speaks words of wisdom to them in their distress, but also with the treatment and position of Calpurnia, he is able to demonstrate a precise view of his own conscience. Atticus knows that because of this, he is considered one of the most non-racist people in Maycomb, therefore being offered Tom's case. Judge Taylor knows the right man for the job. Before he even begins, Atticus knows the case is already lost. They were licked a hundred years before it even started, but still he fights for innocence.

Planning and Measuring Performance Essay

Planning and Measuring Performance Planning and Measuring Performance This paper will discuss Hospital Corporation of America’s (HCA) goals of achieving industry-leading performance in clinical and satisfaction measures and recruiting and employing physicians to meet the need for high quality health services (University of Oregon Investment Group, 2011). This paper will also discuss which tools would be most effective in measuring the organization’s performance against the determined standards. The actual standards that HCA would use to measure the first goal of achieving industry-leading performance in clinical and satisfaction measures are set by The Joint Commission. According to Kicab Casta eda-Mendez (1999), achieving improved clinical performance and satisfaction measures requires performance measures in three areas: * To lead the entire organization in a particular direction. * To manage the resources needed to travel in this direction. * To operate the processes that make the organization work. According to Kicab Casta eda-Mendez (1999), these measures are: * Strategic–to drive strategies into action and change the organizational culture. * Diagnostic–to evaluate the effectiveness of these actions and the extent of change. * Operational–to improve continuously. The most effective tool to measure these improvements is benchmarking. Benchmarking against the top healthcare companies will determine if HCA is achieving industry-leading performance in clinical and satisfaction measures. Without benchmarking HCA could not determine if the company was leading the industry or if they were at the bottom of organizational ladder. HCA’s goal of hiring physicians to meet the need for high quality health services can be measured by determining the number of physicians need to accommodate the number of patients, determining the specialties/ sub-specialties the physicians are needed in, as well as measuring the retention rate of the physicians. The Balanced Scorecard would best fit this goal. The Balanced Scorecard allows the company to see the projected percentages and the actual percentages of the measurements. It also helps the company see what needs to be changed and gives direction for those changes. HCA can use benchmarking and the Balanced Scorecard to measure the different aspects of their goals. HCA will also be able to see the areas that need improvement and have some guidance into making these changes. With these tools HCA will be able to make an effective go at achieving their goals. References University of Oregon Investment Group (May 6, 2011). Hospital Corporation of America. Retrieved from http://uoinvestmentgroup. org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/HCA. pdf Casta eda-Mendez (1999). Performance Measurement in Healthcare. Retrieved from http://www. qualitydigest. com/may99/html/body_health. html

Mainstreaming and Inclusion Education For Disabled Children

According to the Curry School of Education, approximately 80% of students with learning disabilities receive the majority of their instruction in the general classroom (â€Å"Inclusion.† http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/curry/dept/cise/ose.html. 10 Oct. 1999). That number is expected to rise as teachers and parents become aware of the benefits of inclusion. Because there are so many disabled students in regular schools, it is important to look at whether or not mainstreaming is necessary for their education. For parents, having their disabled children mainstreamed into regular education can be a difficult choice. Although disabled children†s education can be more challenging in regular schools, the benefits of inclusion include enhanced self-esteem, development of social skills, and exposure to regular curriculum. Many people believe mainstreaming only helps disabled children, but there are many challenges that hurt their education rather than help. Both faculty and students can be cruel to disabled students. Because they are not used to interacting with disabled children, faculty and students may be uncomfortable with the situation and be insensitive to the disabled children. By ignoring the disabled children or treating them badly, the children will lose self-esteem and may disrupt the class in order to show their unhappiness. Some teachers are not familiar with teaching disabled children, so the education is lacking for the children. Teachers may continue to teach their classes at an accelerated level, forgetting about the slower students. The students will then fall behind and get frustrated with the situation. All these factors hurt disabled children†s education and will hurt their chances at succeeding in life. Being in a regular school can help disabled children feel better about themselves and their accomplishments. When disabled children complete a more challenging task, they may receive praise from their teacher and fellow students. Kim Harries says that when learning disabled students are placed in classrooms with regular achieving students, higher expectations are placed on them. In turn, their desire to excel increases (â€Å"Mainstreaming.† http://www.psych.westminster.edu/medvin/psy46/inclus/mainstreaming.htm. 11 Oct. 1999). Disabled children know that they are overcoming great odds by attending a regular school. Because of that knowledge, they can be proud of their accomplishments no matter how small they may be. Because of their effort, disabled children can feel better about themselves in spite of the disability that ails them. Inclusion in a regular school gives disabled children the social skills needed to live in the outside world. Disabled children learn important lessons to help them adapt to the real world. They learn how to interact with other people and how they are expected to act in public. According to Scott Willis, â€Å"Advocates of mainstreaming, on the other hand, claim that the mainstreaming of disabled students results in better socialization skills for the disabled children† (â€Å"Inclusion Gains Ground.† Education Update. Dec. 1995: 1-8). Disabled children gain real life experiences when dealing with regular students. They deal with the everyday ridicule and challenges that only make them stronger against those that may put them down. Dealing with and learning from everyday problems now will only help disabled children as they grow up in an unkind world. Immersion in regular curriculum gives disabled children a chance to test their abilities. Disabled children can test their skills and see what areas they excel in. After children find something they excel in, they can use that talent in future aspirations. Disabled children are given a chance to challenge their minds and thus grow mentally. By doing so, they may increase their learning capabilities and advance in their education. Because children may only be disabled in certain areas of curriculum, immersion will give them a chance to keep up in classes they are mentally able to. By giving disabled children the chances they deserve, their mental and physical abilities are able to improve and thus improve their education. Even though education in regular schools can be challenging for learning disabled children, including them can enhance their self-esteem, develop their social skills to help them survive in the world, and give them a chance to be exposed to regular curriculum. Everyone at some point in their lives will be exposed to people with handicaps. If they learn to look past them at a young age, it will help them succeed in a mainstreaming world. Jennifer Pinland, a speech pathologist that works with disabled children says, â€Å"Children with handicaps cannot be ignored and pushed through the school system. They must get the help they need in order to avoid ridicule and defeat for the rest of their lives.†